Jump to content

User:Wils0019/sandbox

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Draft for Introduction to Blue Carbon

Carbon Biosequestration in Ocean

[edit]

Introduction to biosequestration

Ocean storage refers to the use of large water bodies and marine lifeforms to capture carbon by exploiting natural and geological mechanisms. Oceans cover more than 70% of the earth’s surface, and plays a major role in helping to stabilise Earth’s climate [1]. This presents itself as a readily available carbon sink to store and capture atmospheric carbon dioxide. Due to the solubility of carbon dioxide in water, CO2 naturally dissolves in oceanic waters to form an equilibrium. When the atmospheric concentration of CO2 increases, the position of equilibrium pushes the equilibrium in the direction such that more CO2 dissolves into the water. Utilising this mechanism, the oceans have taken up about 500 GtCO2 (140GtC) of the total 1,300 GtCO2 (350 GtC) of anthropogenic emissions released to the atmosphere over the past 200 years. As a result of the increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations from human activities relative to pre-industrial levels, the oceans are currently taking up CO2 at a rate of about 7 GtCO2 yr-1 (2 GtC yr-1). To enhance the natural mechanism of CO2 dissolving in water, several methods have been proposed by the scientific community. These include the use of iron fertilisation, urea fertilisation, mixing layers, seaweed [2] as well as direct carbon injection into the sea floor.

Biosequestration with Iron Fertilization

[edit]
An oceanic phytoplankton bloom in the North Sea off the coast of eastern Scotland.

Ocean iron fertilization is an example of a geoengineering technique that involves intentional introduction of iron-rich deposits into oceans and is aimed to enhance biological productivity of organisms in ocean waters in order to increase carbon dioxide (CO2) uptake from the atmosphere, possibly resulting in mitigating its global warming effects.[3][4][5][6][7]

Iron is a trace element in ocean and its presence is vital for photosynthesis in plants, and in particular phytoplanktons, as It has been shown that iron deficiency can limit ocean productivity and phytoplankton growth.[8] For this reason, “iron hypothesis” was put forward by Martin in late 1980s where he suggested that changes in iron supply in iron-deficient ocean-waters can bloom plankton growth and have a significant effect on the concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide by altering rates of carbon sequestration.[9][10]

In fact, fertilization is an important process that occurs naturally in the ocean waters. For instance, upwellings of ocean currents can bring nutrient-rich sediments to the surface.[11] Another example is through transfer of iron-rich minerals, dust, and volcanic ash over long distances by rivers, glaciers, or wind.[12][13] Moreover, it has been suggested that whales can transfer iron-rich ocean dust to the surface, where planktons can take it up to grow. It has been showed that reduction in the number of sperm whales in the Southern Ocean has resulted in a 200,000 tonnes/yr decrease in the atmospheric carbon uptake, possibly due to limited phytoplankton growth.[14]

Air-sea exchange of

Planktons can take up and sequester atmospheric carbon through generating calcium or silicon-carbonate skeletons. When these organisms die they sink to the ocean floor where their carbonate skeletons can form a major component of the carbon-rich deep sea precipitation, thousands of meters below plankton blooms, known as marine snow.[15][16][17]Nonetheless, based on the definition, carbon is only considered "sequestered" when it is deposited in the ocean floor where it can be retained for millions of years. However, most of the carbon-rich biomass generated from planktons is generally consumed by other organisms (small fish, zooplankton, etc.)[18][19] and substantial part of rest of the deposits that sink beneath plankton blooms may be re-dissolved in the water and gets transferred to the surface where it eventually returns to the atmosphere, thus, nullifying any possible intended effects regarding carbon sequestration.[20][21][22][23][24]  Nevertheless, supporters of the idea of iron fertilization believe that carbon sequestration should be re-defined over much shorter time frames and claim that since the carbon is suspended in the deep ocean it is effectively isolated from the atmosphere for hundreds of years, and thus, carbon can be effectively sequestered.[25]

Assuming the ideal conditions, the upper estimates for possible effects of iron fertilization in slowing down global warming is about 0.3W/m2 of averaged negative forcing which can offset roughly 15-20% of the current anthropogenic emissions.[26][27][28] However, although this approach could be looked upon as an alternative to lower concentration of in the atmosphere, ocean iron fertilization is still quite controversial and highly debated due to possible negative consequences on the marine ecosystem.[29][30][31][32] Research on this area has suggested that fertilization through deposition of large quantities of iron-rich dust into the ocean floor can significantly disrupt ocean’s nutrient balance and cause major complications in the food cycle for other marine organisms.[33][34][35][36][37][38][39]

Urea fertilization

[edit]

In waters with sufficient iron micro nutrients, but a deficit of nitrogen, urea fertilization is the better choice for algae growth[40]. Urea is the most used fertilizer in the world, due to its high content of nitrogen, low cost and high reactivity towards water[41]. When exposed to ocean waters, urea is metabolized by phytoplankton via urease enzymes to produce ammonia[42].

The intermediate product carbamate also reacts with water to produce a total of two ammonia molecules[42]. In 2007 the 'Ocean Nourishment Corporation of Sydney' initiated an experiment in the Sulu sea (southwest of the Philippines), were 1000 tons of urea was injected into the ocean[41]. The goal was to prove that urea fertilization would enrich the algae growth in the ocean, and thereby capture from the atmosphere. This project was criticized by many institutions, including the European commission[43], due to lack of knowledge of side effects on the marine ecosystem[44]. Results from this project are still to be published in literature.

Another cause of concern is the sheer amount of urea needed to caption the same amount of carbon as eq. iron fertilization. The nitrogen to iron ratio in a typical algae cell is 16:0.0001, meaning that for every iron atom added to the ocean a substantial larger amount of carbon is captured compared to adding one atom of nitrogen[40].

Scientist also emphasize that adding urea to ocean waters could reduce oxygen content and result in a rise of toxic marine algae[40]. This could potentially have devastating effects on fish populations, which other argue would be benefiting from the urea fertilization (the argument being that fish populations would feed on healthy phytoplankton[45].

Seaweed

[edit]

Seaweed cultivation is one of the many measures that have been introduced for mitigating global warming through enhanced natural sinks.This method was prominent in those early ocean algae proposals to mitigate global warming using kelp farms are designed to encompass tens of thousands of square kilometres of the open ocean. In which seaweed beds act as effective sinks by drastically reducing the level of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC).

Seaweeds fix abundant CO2 through photosynthesis, nearly 0.7 million tonnes of carbon are removed from the sea each year within commercially harvested seaweeds. Even though seaweed biomass only occupy a very small area of the coastal region, they are essential because of their biotic components, valuable ecosystem services, and high primary productivity.

Unlike seagrasses and mangroves, seaweeds are photosynthetic algal organisms and, as such, are non-flowering. These primary producers grow in much the same way as their terrestrial counterparts, assimilating carbon through photosynthesis and generating new biomass by taking up nitrogen, phosphorus, and many other essential minerals and trace substances.

Large-scale seaweed cultivation is attractive because of its decades-proven, low-cost technologies and the multiple uses that can be made of its products. Currently. seaweed farming represents approximately 25% of the world's aquaculture production and its potential has not been fully exploited.

Overall, seaweeds contribute 16–18.7% of the total marine-vegetation sink. In 2010 there are 19.2 × 106 tons of aquatic plants worldwide , 6.8 × 106 tons for brown seaweeds; , 9.0 × 106 tons for red seaweeds; 0.2 × 106 tons of green seaweeds,; and 3.2 × 106 tons of miscellaneous aquatic plants. Based on these figures, it is estimated that ∼1000 t of carbon is temporarily sequestered, making the sea as important a carbon sink as terrestrial ecosystems.

Mixing Layers

[edit]

Mixing layers involve transporting the denser and colder deep ocean water to the surface mixed layer. As the temperature of water in the ocean decreases with depth, more CO2 and other compounds are able to dissolve in the deeper layers[46]. This can be induced by reversing the oceanic carbon cycle through the use of large vertical pipes serving as ocean pumps[47], or a mixer array[48]. When the nutrient rich deep ocean water is moved to the surface, algae bloom occurs, resulting in a decrease in CO2 due to carbon intake from Phytoplankton and other photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. The transfer of heat between the layers will also cause seawater from the mixed layer to sink and absorb more CO2.

This method has not gained much traction as algae bloom harms marine ecosystems by blocking sunlight and releasing harmful toxins into the ocean[49]. The sudden increase in CO2 on the surface level will also temporarily decrease the pH of the seawater, impairing the growth of coral reefs. The production of carbonic acid through the dissolution of CO2 in seawater hinders marine biogenic calcification and causes major disruptions to the oceanic food chain[50].


Article Evaluation

I will be evaluating the article "Compost".

Evaluating Content:

  • Article is relevant to topic, no distractions
  • Information is up to date, with a variety of sources across different timespan

Evaluating Tone:

  • Neutral tone

Evaluating sources:

  • Citation links work.
  • Facts are referenced with an appropriate, reliable reference

Checking the talk page: Now take a look at how others are talking about this article on the talk page.

  • Conversations aimed to clarify some of the definitions used, such as compost vs humus
  • C-class rating
  1. ^ https://www.greenfacts.org/en/co2-capture-storage/l-3/6-ocean-storage-co2.htm
  2. ^ De Vooys, 1979; Raven and Falkowski, 1999; Falkowski et al., 2000; Pelejero et al., 2010
  3. ^ Traufetter, Gerald (2009-01-02). "Cold Carbon Sink: Slowing Global Warming with Antarctic Iron". Spiegel Online. Retrieved 2018-11-18.
  4. ^ Jin, X.; Gruber, N.; Frenzel, H.; Doney, S. C.; McWilliams, J. C. (2008-03-18). "The impact on atmospheric CO2 of iron fertilization induced changes in the ocean's biological pump". Biogeosciences. 5 (2): 385–406. doi:10.5194/bg-5-385-2008. ISSN 1726-4170.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  5. ^ "No Title". www-formal.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2018-11-18.
  6. ^ Martínez-García, Alfredo; Sigman, Daniel M.; Ren, Haojia; Anderson, Robert F.; Straub, Marietta; Hodell, David A.; Jaccard, Samuel L.; Eglinton, Timothy I.; Haug, Gerald H. (2014-03-21). "Iron Fertilization of the Subantarctic Ocean During the Last Ice Age". Science. 343 (6177): 1347–1350. doi:10.1126/science.1246848. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 24653031.
  7. ^ Pasquier, Benoît; Holzer, Mark (2018-08-16). "Iron fertilization efficiency and the number of past and future regenerations of iron in the ocean". Biogeosciences Discussions: 1–37. doi:https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-2018-379. ISSN 1726-4170. {{cite journal}}: Check |doi= value (help); External link in |doi= (help)
  8. ^ Boyd, Philip W.; Watson, Andrew J.; Law, Cliff S.; Abraham, Edward R.; Trull, Thomas; Murdoch, Rob; Bakker, Dorothee C. E.; Bowie, Andrew R.; Buesseler, K. O. (October 2000). "A mesoscale phytoplankton bloom in the polar Southern Ocean stimulated by iron fertilization". Nature. 407 (6805): 695–702. doi:10.1038/35037500. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 11048709.
  9. ^ Boyd, P. W.; Jickells, T.; Law, C. S.; Blain, S.; Boyle, E. A.; Buesseler, K. O.; Coale, K. H.; Cullen, J. J.; Baar, H. J. W. de (2007-02-02). "Mesoscale Iron Enrichment Experiments 1993-2005: Synthesis and Future Directions". Science. 315 (5812): 612–617. doi:10.1126/science.1131669. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17272712.
  10. ^ "John Martin". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 2001-07-10. Retrieved 2018-11-19.
  11. ^ Ian, Salter,; Ralf, Schiebel,; Patrizia, Ziveri,; Aurore, Movellan,; S., Lampitt, Richard; A., Wolff, George (2015-02-23). "Carbonate counter pump stimulated by natural iron fertilization in the Southern Ocean". epic.awi.de (in German). Retrieved 2018-11-19.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ "Wayback Machine" (PDF). 2007-11-29. Retrieved 2018-11-19.
  13. ^ Hodson, Andy; Nowak, Aga; Sabacka, Marie; Jungblut, Anne; Navarro, Francisco; Pearce, David; Ávila-Jiménez, María Luisa; Convey, Peter; Vieira, Gonçalo (2017-02-15). "Climatically sensitive transfer of iron to maritime Antarctic ecosystems by surface runoff". Nature Communications. 8: 14499. doi:10.1038/ncomms14499. ISSN 2041-1723.
  14. ^ Lavery, Trish J.; Roudnew, Ben; Gill, Peter; Seymour, Justin; Seuront, Laurent; Johnson, Genevieve; Mitchell, James G.; Smetacek, Victor (2010-11-22). "Iron defecation by sperm whales stimulates carbon export in the Southern Ocean". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 277 (1699): 3527–3531. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.0863. ISSN 0962-8452. PMID 20554546.
  15. ^ J., Brooks,; K., Shamberger,; B., Roark, E.; K., Miller,; A., Baco-Taylor, (2016-2). "Seawater Carbonate Chemistry of Deep-sea Coral Beds off the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands". {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ Laurenceau-Cornec, Emmanuel C.; Trull, Thomas W.; Davies, Diana M.; Rocha, Christina L. De La; Blain, Stéphane (2015-02-03). "Phytoplankton morphology controls on marine snow sinking velocity". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 520: 35–56. doi:10.3354/meps11116. ISSN 0171-8630.
  17. ^ "Delayed settling of marine snow: Effects of density gradient and particle properties and implications for carbon cycling". Marine Chemistry. 175: 28–38. 2015-10-20. doi:10.1016/j.marchem.2015.04.006. ISSN 0304-4203.
  18. ^ Steinberg, Deborah K.; Landry, Michael R. (2017-01-03). "Zooplankton and the Ocean Carbon Cycle". Annual Review of Marine Science. 9 (1): 413–444. doi:10.1146/annurev-marine-010814-015924. ISSN 1941-1405.
  19. ^ Cavan, Emma L.; Henson, Stephanie A.; Belcher, Anna; Sanders, Richard (2017-01-12). "Role of zooplankton in determining the efficiency of the biological carbon pump". Biogeosciences. 14 (1): 177–186. doi:10.5194/bg-14-177-2017. ISSN 1726-4189.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  20. ^ Robinson, J.; Popova, E. E.; Yool, A.; Srokosz, M.; Lampitt, R. S.; Blundell, J. R. (2014-04-11). "How deep is deep enough? Ocean iron fertilization and carbon sequestration in the Southern Ocean". Geophysical Research Letters. 41 (7): 2489–2495. doi:10.1002/2013gl058799. ISSN 0094-8276.
  21. ^ Hauck, Judith; Köhler, Peter; Wolf-Gladrow, Dieter; Völker, Christoph (2016). "Iron fertilisation and century-scale effects of open ocean dissolution of olivine in a simulated CO 2 removal experiment". Environmental Research Letters. 11 (2): 024007. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/2/024007. ISSN 1748-9326.
  22. ^ Tremblay, Luc; Caparros, Jocelyne; Leblanc, Karine; Obernosterer, Ingrid (2014). "Origin and fate of particulate and dissolved organic matter in a naturally iron-fertilized region of the Southern Ocean". Biogeosciences. 12 (2).
  23. ^ "Zooplankton Gut Passage Mobilizes Lithogenic Iron for Ocean Productivity". Current Biology. 26 (19): 2667–2673. 2016-10-10. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.07.058. ISSN 0960-9822.
  24. ^ Vinay, Subhas, Adam (2017). "Chemical Controls on the Dissolution Kinetics of Calcite in Seawater". doi:10.7907/z93x84p3. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ Jackson, R. B.; Canadell, J. G.; Fuss, S.; Milne, J.; Nakicenovic, N.; Tavoni, M. (2017). "Focus on negative emissions". Environmental Research Letters. 12 (11): 110201. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aa94ff. ISSN 1748-9326.
  26. ^ Lenton, T. M.; Vaughan, N. E. (2009-01-28). "The radiative forcing potential of different climate geoengineering options". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions. 9 (1): 2559–2608. doi:10.5194/acpd-9-2559-2009. ISSN 1680-7375.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  27. ^ Process and method for the enhancement of sequestering atmospheric carbon through ocean iron fertilization, and method for calculating net carbon capture from said process and method, retrieved 2018-11-19 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |issue-date= ignored (help)
  28. ^ Gattuso, J.-P.; Magnan, A.; Billé, R.; Cheung, W. W. L.; Howes, E. L.; Joos, F.; Allemand, D.; Bopp, L.; Cooley, S. R. (2015-07-03). "Contrasting futures for ocean and society from different anthropogenic CO2 emissions scenarios". Science. 349 (6243): aac4722. doi:10.1126/science.aac4722. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 26138982.
  29. ^ Hauck, Judith; Köhler, Peter; Wolf-Gladrow, Dieter; Völker, Christoph (2016). "Iron fertilisation and century-scale effects of open ocean dissolution of olivine in a simulated CO 2 removal experiment". Environmental Research Letters. 11 (2): 024007. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/2/024007. ISSN 1748-9326.
  30. ^ El-Jendoubi, Hamdi; Vázquez, Saúl; Calatayud, Ángeles; Vavpetič, Primož; Vogel-Mikuš, Katarina; Pelicon, Primoz; Abadía, Javier; Abadía, Anunciación; Morales, Fermín (2014). "The effects of foliar fertilization with iron sulfate in chlorotic leaves are limited to the treated area. A study with peach trees (Prunus persica L. Batsch) grown in the field and sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) grown in hydroponics". Frontiers in Plant Science. 5. doi:10.3389/fpls.2014.00002. ISSN 1664-462X.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  31. ^ Yoon, Joo-Eun; Yoo, Kyu-Cheul; Macdonald, Alison M.; Yoon, Ho-Il; Park, Ki-Tae; Yang, Eun Jin; Kim, Hyun-Cheol; Lee, Jae Il; Lee, Min Kyung (2018-10-05). "Reviews and syntheses: Ocean iron fertilization experiments – past, present, and future looking to a future Korean Iron Fertilization Experiment in the Southern Ocean (KIFES) project". Biogeosciences. 15 (19): 5847–5889. doi:10.5194/bg-15-5847-2018. ISSN 1726-4189.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  32. ^ "Potential ecotoxicological effects of elevated bicarbonate ion concentrations on marine organisms". Environmental Pollution. 241: 194–199. 2018-10-01. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2018.05.057. ISSN 0269-7491.
  33. ^ Traufetter, Gerald (2009-01-02). "Cold Carbon Sink: Slowing Global Warming with Antarctic Iron". Spiegel Online. Retrieved 2018-11-19.
  34. ^ "Reuters AlertNet - RPT-FEATURE-Scientists urge caution in ocean-CO2 capture schemes". 2009-08-03. Retrieved 2018-11-19.
  35. ^ "WWF condemns Planktos Inc. iron-seeding plan in the Galapagos". Geoengineering Monitor. 2007-06-27. Retrieved 2018-11-19.
  36. ^ "The Global, Complex Phenomena of Harmful Algal Blooms | Oceanography". tos.org. Retrieved 2018-11-19.
  37. ^ Moore, J.Keith; Doney, Scott C; Glover, David M; Fung, Inez Y (2001). "Iron cycling and nutrient-limitation patterns in surface waters of the World Ocean". Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. 49 (1–3): 463–507. doi:10.1016/S0967-0645(01)00109-6. ISSN 0967-0645.
  38. ^ Trick, Charles G.; Bill, Brian D.; Cochlan, William P.; Wells, Mark L.; Trainer, Vera L.; Pickell, Lisa D. (2010-03-30). "Iron enrichment stimulates toxic diatom production in high-nitrate, low-chlorophyll areas". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (13): 5887–5892. doi:10.1073/pnas.0910579107. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 20231473.
  39. ^ Fripiat, F.; Elskens, M.; Trull, T. W.; Blain, S.; Cavagna, A. -J.; Fernandez, C.; Fonseca-Batista, D.; Planchon, F.; Raimbault, P. (2015-11). "Significant mixed layer nitrification in a natural iron-fertilized bloom of the Southern Ocean". Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 29 (11): 1929–1943. doi:10.1002/2014gb005051. ISSN 0886-6236. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  40. ^ a b c Mingyuan, Glibert, Patricia M. Azanza, Rhodora Burford, Michele Furuya, Ken Abal, Eva Al-Azri, Adnan Al-Yamani, Faiza Andersen, Per Anderson, Donald M. Beardall, John Berg, Gry M. Brand, Larry E. Bronk, Deborah Brookes, Justin Burkholder, JoAnn M. Cembella, Allan D. Cochlan, William P. Collier, Jackie L. Collos, Yves Diaz, Robert Doblin, Martina Drennen, Thomas Dyhrman, Sonya T. Fukuyo, Yasuwo Furnas, Miles Galloway, James Graneli, Edna Ha, Dao Viet Hallegraeff, Gustaaf M. Harrison, John A. Harrison, Paul J. Heil, Cynthia A. Heimann, Kirsten Howarth, Robert W. Jauzein, Cecile Kana, Austin A. Kana, Todd M. Kim, Hakgyoon Kudela, Raphael M. Legrand, Catherine Mallin, Michael Mulholland, Margaret R. Murray, Shauna A. O’Neil, Judith Pitcher, Grant C. Qi, Yuzao Rabalais, Nancy Raine, Robin Seitzinger, Sybil P. Salomon, Paulo S. Solomon, Caroline Stoecker, Diane K. Usup, Gires Wilson, Joanne Yin, Kedong Zhou, Mingjiang Zhu, (2008-08-14). Ocean urea fertilization for carbon credits poses high ecological risks. OCLC 1040066339.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  41. ^ a b Azeem, Babar; KuShaari, KuZilati; Man, Zakaria B.; Basit, Abdul; Thanh, Trinh H. (2014-05). "Review on materials & methods to produce controlled release coated urea fertilizer". Journal of Controlled Release. 181: 11–21. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.02.020. ISSN 0168-3659. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  42. ^ a b Collins, Carleen M.; D'Orazio, Sarah E. F. (1993-09). "Bacterial ureases: structure, regulation of expression and role in pathogenesis". Molecular Microbiology. 9 (5): 907–913. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.1993.tb01220.x. ISSN 0950-382X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  43. ^ El-Geziry, T M; Bryden, I G (2010-01). "The circulation pattern in the Mediterranean Sea: issues for modeller consideration". Journal of Operational Oceanography. 3 (2): 39–46. doi:10.1080/1755876x.2010.11020116. ISSN 1755-876X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  44. ^ Mayo-Ramsay, Julia (2010-09). "Environmental, legal and social implications of ocean urea fertilization: Sulu sea example". Marine Policy. 34 (5): 831–835. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2010.01.004. ISSN 0308-597X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  45. ^ Jones, Ian S.F.; Cappelen-Smith, Christian (1999), "Lowring the cost of carbon sequestration by ocean nourishment", Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies 4, Elsevier, pp. 255–259, ISBN 9780080430188, retrieved 2018-11-29
  46. ^ "Ocean temperature". Science Learning Hub. Retrieved 2018-11-28.
  47. ^ Pearce, Fred. "Ocean pumps could counter global warming". New Scientist. Retrieved 2018-11-28.
  48. ^ Duke, John H. (2008). "A proposal to force vertical mixing of the Pacific Equatorial Undercurrent to create a system of equatorially trapped coupled convection that counteracts global warming" (PDF). Geophysical Research Abstracts. Retrieved May 9, 2010.
  49. ^ EPA,OW,OWOW, US. "Harmful Algal Blooms | US EPA". US EPA. Retrieved 2018-11-28.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  50. ^ Shirley, Jolene S. "Discovering the Effects of Carbon Dioxide Levels on Marine Life and Global Climate". soundwaves.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2018-11-28.