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Fatalities

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The Farmington coal mine disaster kills 78. West Virginia, US, 1968.
Energy source Mortality rate
(in deaths/trillion kWh)		 Percentage of energy type Year
Coal (global) 100,000[1][2] 41% (electricity) 2012
Coal (China) 170,000[1] 75% (electricity) 2012
Coal (US) 10,000[1] 31% (electricity) 2012
Oil 36,000[1][2] 33% (total energy) 2012
8% (electricity)
Natural Gas 4,000[1][2] 22% (electricity) 2012
Biofuel/biomass 24,000[1][2] 21% (total energy) 2012
Solar – rooftop 440[1] <1% (electricity) 2012
Wind <1,000[3] 3.81% (electricity)[4] 2011
Hydro (global) 1,400[1][2] 16% (electricity) 2012
Hydro (US) 5[1] 6% (electricity) 2012
Nuclear (global) 90[1][2] 11% (electricity) 2012
Nuclear (US) 0.1[1][2] 19% (electricity) 2012

According to Benjamin K. Sovacool, while responsible for less than 1 percent of the total number of energy accidents, hydroelectric facilities claimed 94 percent of reported immediate fatalities. Results on immediate fatalities are dominated by one disaster in which Typhoon Nina in 1975 washed out the Shimantan Dam (Henan Province, China) and 171,000 people perished.[5] While the other major accident that involved greater than 1000 immediate deaths followed the rupture of the NNPC petroleum pipeline in 1998 and the resulting explosion.[5] The other singular accident described by Sovacool is the predicted latent death toll of greater than 1000, as a result of the 1986 steam explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear reactor in the Ukraine. With approximately 4000 deaths in total, to eventually result in the decades ahead due to the radio-isotope pollution released.

In the oil and gas industry, the need for improved safety culture and training within companies is evidenced by the finding that workers new to a company are more likely to be involved in fatalities.[6]

Coal mining accidents resulted in 5,938 immediate deaths in 2005, and 4746 immediate deaths in 2006 in China alone according to the World Wildlife Fund.[7] Coal mining is the most dangerous occupation in China, the death rate for every 100 tons of coal mined is 100 times that of the death rate in the US and 30 times that achieved in South Africa. Moreover, 600,000 Chinese coal miners, as of 2004, were suffering from Coalworker's pneumoconiosis (known as "black lung") a disease of the lungs caused by long-continued inhalation of coal dust. And the figure increases by 70,000 miners every year in China.[8]

Historically, coal mining has been a very dangerous activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is a long one. In the US alone, more than 100,000 coal miners were killed in accidents over the past century,[9] with more than 3,200 dying in 1907 alone.[10] In the decades following this peak, an annual death toll of 1,500 miner fatalities occurred every year in the US until approximately the 1970s.[11] Coal mining fatalities in the US between 1990 and 2012 have continued to decline, with fewer than 100 each year.[12] (See more Coal mining disasters in the United States)

In the United States, in the 2000s, after three decades of regulation on the Environmental impact of the coal industry, including regulations in the 1970s and 1990s from the Clean Air Act, an act created to cut down on pollution related deaths from fossil fuel usage, US coal fired power plants were estimated, in the 2000s, to continue to cause between 10,000 and 30,000 latent, or air pollution related deaths per year, due to the emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and directly emitted particulate matter that result when coal is burnt.[13]

According to the World Health Organization in 2012, urban outdoor air pollution, from the burning of fossil fuels and biomass is estimated to cause 3 million deaths worldwide per year and indoor air pollution from biomass and fossil fuel burning is estimated to cause approximately 4.3 million premature deaths.[14] In 2013 a team of researchers estimated the number of premature deaths caused by particulate matter in outdoor air pollution as 2.1 million, occurring annually.[15][16]

PFOS draft

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Levels in humans

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Because of its chemical nature, PFOS will remain in the body for several years. It is estimated that it takes 4 years for half of this substance to be eliminated from the body.[17]

Blood serum concentration levels of PFOS from 1957 teenagers from 9 European countries, with most samples collected between 2016 and 2018, showed an average of 2.13 ppb. These levels are similar to those found in comparable cohorts in Canada, and slightly lower than the levels of those in the United States. In the same European cohort, those who consumed seafood or eggs two or more times per week, and those who consumed offal "sometimes" had a 21%, 11%, and 14% increase in PFOS levels, respectively. Higher consumption of local food (two or more times per week) showed the greatest increase in PFOS levels (40%), with the caveat that only 4 of the 9 sampling countries measured this; 3 measuring only plant-based consumption and one measuring both plant- and animal-based consumption. Other factors that showed significant increases in blood serum PFOS concentrations were sex (boys had higher levels than girls) and household education level. Those whose families had medium or higher educational levels (ISCED 3 and higher) had higher PFOS levels (only 8% of samples represented low educational levels). Even so, "[t]he observed associations between dietary determinants and PFAS concentrations were not affected by educational level in the model."[18]

PFOS is detected in the blood serum of almost all people in the U.S., but concentrations have been decreasing over time. In contrast, PFOS blood levels appear to be rising in China[19] where PFOS production continues.

People with occupational exposure have been found to have blood serum levels 1000 times higher than the general population, ranging from 860 to 2440 ppb[20].

PFOS exposure has been demonstrated as early as fetal development during pregnancy since PFOS can easily pass through the placenta.[21] It has been shown that fetal exposure to PFOS is quite prevalent and has been shown to be detected in greater than 99% of umbilical cord serum samples.[22]

PFOS has been detected in U.S. freshwater fish,[23][24] as well as in municipal wastewater[25] and drinking water samples,[26] worldwide, at concentrations ranging between few ng/L and some μg/L.

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k How Deadly Is Your Kilowatt? We Rank The Killer Energy Sources James Conca, June 10, 2012
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Markandya, A.; Wilkinson, P. (2007). "Electricity generation and health". The Lancet. 370 (9591): 979–990. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61253-7. PMID 17876910. S2CID 25504602.
  3. ^ Caithness Windfarm Information Forum (June 30, 2019). "Summary of Wind Turbine Accident data to 30 June 2019".
  4. ^ Historical electricity data: 1920 to 2011
  5. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference bksenpol was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  6. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  7. ^ Pozon, Ina; Puanani Mench (2006). "Coming Clean: The future of coal in the Asia-Pacific region". WWF. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
  8. ^ "Coal mining: Most deadly job in China".
  9. ^ Cite error: The named reference npr.org was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Coal Mining Steeped in History was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  11. ^ "Injury Trends in Mining". Archived from the original on 2013-04-17. Retrieved 2013-04-21.
  12. ^ "Mine Safety and Health at a Glance". Archived from the original on 2014-04-06.
  13. ^ "Harvard Kennedy School" (PDF).
  14. ^ "Air quality and health".
  15. ^ Cite error: The named reference spaceref.com was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  16. ^ Cite error: The named reference iopscience.iop.org was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  17. ^ "ATSDR Public Health Statement Perfluoroalkyls" (PDF).
  18. ^ PFAS levels and determinants of variability in exposure in European teenagers – Results from the HBM4EU aligned studies (2014–2021). 2023. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 247/. D. Richterová, E. Govarts, L. Fábelová, K. Rausová, L. Rodriguez Martin, L. Gilles, et al. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2022.114057.
  19. ^ Renner, Rebecca (2008). "PFOS phaseout pays off". Environ. Sci. Technol. 42 (13): 4618. Bibcode:2008EnST...42.4618R. doi:10.1021/es0871614. PMID 18677976.
  20. ^ Fromme H, Tittlemier SA, Völkel W, Wilhelm M, Twardella D (May 2009). "Perfluorinated compounds—exposure assessment for the general population in Western countries". Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health. 212 (3): 239–70. Bibcode:2009IJHEH.212..239F. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2008.04.007. PMID 18565792.
  21. ^ Sunderland, Elsie M.; Hu, Xindi C.; Dassuncao, Clifton; Tokranov, Andrea K.; Wagner, Charlotte C.; Allen, Joseph G. (March 2019). "A review of the pathways of human exposure to poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and present understanding of health effects". Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology. 29 (2): 131–147. doi:10.1038/s41370-018-0094-1. ISSN 1559-064X. PMC 6380916. PMID 30470793.
  22. ^ Tarapore, Pheruza; Ouyang, Bin (2021-04-05). "Perfluoroalkyl Chemicals and Male Reproductive Health: Do PFOA and PFOS Increase Risk for Male Infertility?". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (7): 3794. doi:10.3390/ijerph18073794. ISSN 1661-7827. PMC 8038605. PMID 33916482.
  23. ^ LaMotte, Sandee (17 January 2023). "Locally caught fish are full of dangerous chemicals called PFAS, study finds". CNN. Archived from the original on 14 February 2023. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
  24. ^ Barbo, Nadia; Stoiber, Tasha; Naidenko, Olga V.; Andrews, David Q. (1 March 2023). "Locally caught freshwater fish across the United States are likely a significant source of exposure to PFOS and other perfluorinated compounds". Environmental Research. 220: 115165. Bibcode:2023ER....22015165B. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2022.115165. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 36584847. S2CID 255248441.
  25. ^ Arvaniti, Olga S.; Stasinakis, Athanasios S. (15 August 2015). "Review on the occurrence, fate and removal of perfluorinated compounds during wastewater treatment". Science of the Total Environment. 524–525: 81–92. Bibcode:2015ScTEn.524...81A. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.023. PMID 25889547.
  26. ^ US EPA, OW (September 1, 2015). "Third Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule". US EPA.
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