Tsardom of Russia

This article is about the Russian state from 1547 to 1721. For the Russian state from 1721 to 1917, see Russian Empire.

Tsardom of Russia Русское царство Russkoye tsarstvo
1547–1721
Flag (1693–1721) Coat of arms (1667–1721)
Motto: "For Faith, Tsar, and Fatherland!"
Seal of Tsar Ivan IV (c. 1539):
Territory of Russia in      1500      1600 and      1700
Capital	Moscow (1547–1712) Saint Petersburg (1712–1721)
Common languages	Russian (official)
Religion	Russian Orthodox (official)
Demonym(s)	Russian
Government	Unitary Autocratic Absolute Monarchy
Tsar
• 1547–1584	Ivan IV (first)
• 1682–1721	Peter I (last)
Legislature	- Boyar Duma (1547-1549) - Zemsky Sobor (1549-1711) - Governing Senate(1711-1721)
History
• Coronation of Ivan IV	16 January 1547
• Livonian War	1558–1583
• Time of Troubles	1598–1613
• Russo-Polish War	1654–1667
• Great Northern War	1700–1721
• Treaty of Nystad	10 September 1721
• Empire proclaimed	2 November 1721
Area
• Total	6,000,000 km2 (2,300,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1500	6 million
• 1600	12 million
• 1646	14 million
• 1719	15.7 million
Currency	Russian ruble
Preceded by Succeeded by Grand Duchy of Moscow Khanate of Kazan Astrakhan Khanate Khanate of Sibir Qasim Khanate Nogai Horde Russian Empire
Today part of	Belarus Finland Russia Ukraine

The Tsardom of Russia, also known as the Tsardom of Muscovy, was a centralized Russian state that existed from 1547 to 1721. It emerged when Ivan IV, known as Ivan the Terrible, assumed the title of Tsar, marking a significant evolution from the previous Grand Duchy of Moscow. This period saw Russia grow tremendously, expanding by an average of 35,000 square kilometers per year between 1550 and 1700. The Tsardom was characterized by absolute monarchical rule, with the Tsar wielding supreme authority over all aspects of the state and society. During this era, Russia underwent significant transformations. Ivan IV implemented crucial reforms, including the promulgation of a new legal code (Sudebnik of 1550), the establishment of the first Russian feudal representative body (Zemsky Sobor), and the creation of the first regular army (Streltsy). The Tsardom also saw the conquest of the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia, which significantly expanded Russia's territory and transformed it into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state. However, this period was not without turmoil. The latter part of Ivan IV's reign was marked by the brutal Oprichnina, a period of domestic repression and violence against the nobility. Following Ivan's death, Russia entered the Time of Troubles, a period of political instability and foreign intervention that nearly ended Russia's independence.

The Tsardom's history took a new turn with the ascension of the Romanov dynasty in 1613, beginning with Michael Romanov. This marked the start of a long and relatively successful era for Russia. Under the Romanovs, Russian expansion continued eastward through Siberia, reaching the Pacific Ocean. The 17th century saw the development of a distinctive Russian culture, often referred to by Slavophiles as the "Golden Age" in Russian history. The Orthodox Church played a crucial role in shaping this culture and everyday life. However, the century also witnessed significant religious upheaval with the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon in 1653, leading to a schism (raskol) and the emergence of the Old Believers movement. The Tsardom of Russia laid the foundations for the later Russian Empire, which would be proclaimed by Peter the Great in 1721, marking the end of the Tsardom period and the beginning of Imperial Russia.

Name

Further information: Names of Rus', Russia and Ruthenia

While the oldest endonyms of the Grand Duchy of Moscow used in its documents were "Rus'" (Русь) and the "Russian land" (Русская земля, Russkaya zemlya), a new form of its name in Russian became common by the 15th century. The vernacular Rus' was transformed into Rus(s)iya or Ros(s)iya (based on the Greek name for Rus'). In the 1480s, Russian state scribes Ivan Cherny and Mikhail Medovartsev mention Russia under the name "Росиа" (Rosia), and Medovartsev also mentions the sceptre "of Russian lordship" (Росийскаго господства, Rosiyskago gospodstva). In the following century, the new forms co-existed with Rus' and appeared in an inscription on the western portal of the Transfiguration Cathedral of the Spaso-Preobrazhensky Monastery in Yaroslavl (1515), on the icon case of the Theotokos of Vladimir (1514), in the work by Maximus the Greek, the Russian Chronograph written by Dosifei Toporkov (died 1543 or 1544) in 1516–1522, and in other sources.

On 16 January 1547, Ivan IV was crowned the tsar and grand prince of all Russia (Царь и Великий князь всея Руси, Tsar i Velikiy knyaz vseya Rusi), thereby proclaiming the Tsardom of Russia, or "the Great Russian Tsardom", as it was called in the coronation document, by Constantinople Patriarch Jeremiah II, and in numerous official texts. The formula in manuscripts "to all his state of Great Russia" later replaced those found in other manuscripts – "to all the Russian realm" (vo vse Rossisskoe tsarstvo); the former is more typical of the 17th century, when the usage of the term "Great Russia" (Velikaya Rossiya) became widely established. By the 17th century, the form Rossiya replaced Rus' to describe the extent of the tsar's imperial authority in chiny, with Feodor III using the term "Great Russian Tsardom" (Velikorossisskoe tsarstvie) to denote an imperial and absolutist state, subordinating both Russian and non-Russian territories. The old name Rus' was replaced in official documents, though the names Rus' and Russian land were still common and synonymous to it.

The Russian state partly remained referred to as Moscovia (English: Muscovy) throughout Europe, predominantly in its Catholic part, though this Latin term was never used in Russia. The two names Russia and Moscovia appear to have co-existed as interchangeable during the late 16th century and throughout the 17th century with different Western maps and sources using different names, so that the country was called "Russia, or Moscovia" (Latin: Russia seu Moscovia) or "Russia, popularly known as Moscovia" (Latin: Russia vulgo Moscovia). In England in the 16th century, it was known both as Russia and Muscovy. Such notable Englishmen as Giles Fletcher, author of the book Of the Russe Common Wealth (1591), and Samuel Collins, author of The Present State of Russia (1668), both of whom visited Russia, were familiar with the term Russia and used it in their works. So did numerous other authors, including John Milton, who wrote A brief history of Moscovia and of other less-known countries lying eastward of Russia, published posthumously, starting it with the words: "The Empire of Moscovia, or as others call it, Russia...".

According to prominent historians like Alexander Zimin and Anna Khoroshkevich, the continuous use of the term Moscovia was a result of traditional habit and the need to distinguish between the Muscovite and the Lithuanian part of Rus', as well as of the political interests of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which competed with Moscow for the western regions of Rus'. Due to the propaganda of the Commonwealth, as well as of the Jesuits, the term Moscovia was used instead of Russia in many parts of Europe where prior to the reign of Peter the Great there was a lack of direct knowledge of the country. In Northern Europe and at the court of the Holy Roman Empire, however, the country was known under its own name, Russia or Rossia. Sigismund von Herberstein, ambassador of the Holy Roman Emperor in Russia, used both Russia and Moscovia in his work on the Russian tsardom and noted: "The majority believes that Russia is a changed name of Roxolania. Muscovites ("Russians" in the German version) refute this, saying that their country was originally called Russia (Rosseia)". Pointing to the difference between Latin and Russian names, French captain Jacques Margeret, who served in Russia and left a detailed description of L'Empire de Russie of the early 17th century that was presented to King Henry IV, stated that foreigners make "a mistake when they call them Muscovites and not Russians. When they are asked what nation they are, they respond 'Russac', which means 'Russians', and when they are asked what place they are from, the answer is Moscow, Vologda, Ryasan and other cities". The closest analogue of the Latin term Moscovia in Russia was "Tsardom of Moscow", or "Moscow Tsardom" (Московское царство, Moskovskoye tsarstvo), which was used along with the name "Russia", sometimes in one sentence, as in the name of the 17th century Russian work On the Great and Glorious Russian Moscow State (О великом и славном Российском Московском государстве, O velikom i slavnom Rossiyskom Moskovskom gosudarstve).

• 
  Moscovia, Herberstein, 1549
• 
  Russia, Mercator, 1595
• 
  Russia seu Moscovia, Mercator, Atlas Cosmographicae, 1596
• 
  Russia vulgo Moscovia, Atlas Maior, 1645

History

Byzantine heritage

Main articles: Tsar; Moscow, third Rome; and Succession of the Roman Empire

Ivory throne of Ivan IV of Russia

By the 16th century, the Russian ruler had emerged as a powerful, autocratic figure, a Tsar. By assuming that title, the sovereign of Moscow tried to emphasize that he was a major ruler or emperor (tsar (царь) represents the Slavic adaptation of the Roman Imperial title/name Caesar) on a par with the Byzantine emperor. Indeed, after Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina, the niece of the late Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos, in 1472, the Moscow court adopted Byzantine terms, rituals, titles, and emblems such as the double-headed eagle, which survives in the coat of arms of Russia.

At first, the Byzantine term autokrator expressed only the literal meaning of an independent ruler, but in the reign of Ivan IV (1533–1584) it came to imply unlimited (autocratic) rule. In 1547 the Grand Duke Ivan IV was crowned Tsar and thus was recognized – at least by the Russian Orthodox Church – as Emperor. Notably, the hegumen Philotheus of Pskov claimed in 1510 that after Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453, the Russian tsar remained the only legitimate Orthodox ruler, and that Moscow was the Third Rome, becoming the final lineal successor to Rome and Constantinople; these were the two centers of Christianity and of the Roman empires (Western and Eastern) of earlier periods. The "Third Rome" concept would resonate in the self-image of the Russian people in future centuries.

Early reign of Ivan IV

The development of the Tsar's autocratic powers reached a peak during the reign of Ivan IV, and he gained the sobriquet "Grozny". The English word terrible is usually used to translate the Russian word grozny in Ivan's nickname, but this is a somewhat archaic translation. The Russian word grozny reflects the older English usage of terrible as in "inspiring fear or terror; dangerous; powerful; formidable". It does not convey the more modern connotations of English terrible, such as "defective" or "evil". Vladimir Dal defined grozny specifically in archaic usage and as an epithet for tsars: "Courageous, magnificent, magisterial and keeping enemies in fear, but people in obedience". Other translations have also been suggested by modern scholars.

Ivan IV, also known as Ivan the Terrible, implemented a series of significant reforms during his reign that reshaped the Russian state and society. These reforms can be broadly categorized into administrative, military, legal, and social changes.

1. Establishment of the Zemsky Sobor (1549): Ivan created this representative assembly, which included members of the nobility, clergy, and merchants .
2. Creation of the Chosen Council: This advisory body assisted Ivan in governing during the early years of his reign.
3. Reorganization of Central Administration: Ivan divided the government into departments (prikazy), each responsible for specific functions of the state .

1. Sudebnik of 1550: This new legal code updated and expanded upon the previous 1497 version, standardizing legal practices across the realm .
2. Church Reform (1551): The Council of a Hundred Chapters (Stoglav) standardized church ceremonies and duties of the clergy .

1. Creation of the Streltsy (1550): This was Russia's first standing army, equipped with firearms .
2. Revision of the Service System: Ivan implemented regulations on the obligations of the boyar class in service of the crown.
3. Establishment of the Oprichnina (1565): While controversial, this was a significant reorganization of the military and state apparatus .

1. Introduction of the Print Yard (1553): This brought the first printing press to Russia .
2. Tax Reform: Ivan introduced a uniform tax system, the "big sokha," which was based on the quality of soil and the type of landowner.
3. Local Government Reform (1556): This introduced elements of local self-government in rural regions .
4. Restrictions on Monasteries: Ivan limited the acquisition of land by monasteries.

1. Conquest of Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556): These expanded Russian territory significantly and brought Muslim populations under Russian rule .
2. Initiation of Trade with England (1553): This opened up new economic opportunities for Russia

These reforms collectively aimed to centralize power, modernize the state apparatus, and strengthen Russia's position both domestically and internationally. However, some of these reforms, particularly the later implementation of the Oprichnina, had destructive consequences that offset earlier gains

Ivan IV became Grand Prince of Moscow in 1533 at the age of three. The Shuysky and Belsky factions of the boyars competed for control of the regency until Ivan assumed the throne in 1547. Reflecting Moscow's new imperial claims, Ivan's coronation as Tsar was a ritual modeled after those of the Byzantine emperors. With the continuing assistance of a group of boyars, Ivan began his reign with a series of useful reforms. In the 1550s, he declared a new law code, revamped the military, and reorganized local government. These reforms undoubtedly were intended to strengthen the state in the face of continuous warfare. The key documents prepared by the so-called Select Council of advisors and promulgated during this period are as follows:

Foreign policies of Ivan IV

Main articles: Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars and Livonian War

Ivan the Great Bell Tower, raised to the present height during the reign of Boris Godunov

Muscovy remained a fairly unknown society in Western Europe until Baron Sigismund von Herberstein published his Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii (literally Notes on Muscovite Affairs) in 1549. This provided a broad view of what had been a rarely visited and poorly reported state. In the 1630s, the Russian Tsardom was visited by Adam Olearius, whose lively and well-informed writings were soon translated into all the major languages of Europe.

Mounted archers of Muscovy

Further information about Russia was circulated by English and Dutch merchants. One of them, Richard Chancellor, sailed to the White Sea in 1553 and continued overland to Moscow. Upon his return to England, the Muscovy Company was formed by himself, Sebastian Cabot, Sir Hugh Willoughby, and several London merchants. Ivan IV used these merchants to exchange letters with Elizabeth I.

Despite the domestic turmoil of the 1530s and 1540s, Russia continued to wage wars and to expand. It grew from 2.8 to 5.4 million square kilometers from 1533 to 1584. Ivan defeated and annexed the Khanate of Kazan on the middle Volga in 1552 and later the Astrakhan Khanate, where the Volga meets the Caspian Sea. These victories transformed Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state, which it continues to be today. The tsar now controlled the entire Volga River and gained access to Central Asia.

Expanding to the northwest toward the Baltic Sea proved to be much more difficult. In 1558, Ivan invaded Livonia, eventually involving himself in a twenty-five-year war against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, and Denmark. Despite first successes, Ivan's army was pushed back, and the nation failed to secure a coveted position on the Baltic Sea.

Hoping to make profit from Russia's concentration on Livonian affairs, Devlet I Giray of Crimea, accompanied by as many as 120,000 horsemen, repeatedly devastated the Moscow region, until the Battle of Molodi put a stop to such northward incursions. But for decades to come, the southern borderland was annually pillaged by the Nogai Horde and the Crimean Khanate, who took local inhabitants with them as slaves. Tens of thousands of soldiers protected the Great Abatis Belt – a burden for a state whose social and economic development was stagnating.

Late reign of Ivan IV and oprichnina

Main article: Oprichnina

The Apostle (1564) by Ivan Fyodorov and Pyotr Mstislavets, one of the first Russian printed books

During the late 1550s, Ivan developed a hostility toward his advisers, the government, and the boyars. Historians have not determined whether policy differences, personal animosities, or mental imbalance caused his wrath. In 1565, he divided Russia into two parts: his private domain (or oprichnina) and the public realm (or zemshchina). For his private domain, Ivan chose some of the most prosperous and important districts of Russia. In these areas, Ivan's agents attacked boyars, merchants, and even common people, summarily executing some and confiscating land and possessions. Thus began a decade of terror in Russia that culminated in the Massacre of Novgorod (1570).

As a result of the policies of the oprichnina, Ivan broke the economic and political power of the leading boyar families, thereby destroying precisely those persons who had built up Russia and were the most capable of administering it. Trade diminished, and peasants, faced with mounting taxes and threats of violence, began to leave Russia. Efforts to curtail the mobility of the peasants by tying them to their land brought Russia closer to legal serfdom. In 1572, Ivan finally abandoned the practices of the oprichnina.

According to a popular theory, the oprichnina was started by Ivan in order to mobilize resources for the wars and to quell opposition. Regardless of the reason, Ivan's domestic and foreign policies had a devastating effect on Russia and led to a period of social struggle and civil war, the Time of Troubles (Smutnoye vremya, 1598–1613).

Time of Troubles

Main articles: Time of Troubles and Polish–Muscovite War (1609–1618)

Ivan IV was succeeded by his son Feodor, who was uninterested in ruling and possibly mentally deficient. Actual power went to Feodor's brother-in-law, the boyar Boris Godunov (who is credited with abolishing Yuri's Day, the only time of the year when serfs were free to move from one landowner to another). Perhaps the most important event of Feodor's reign was the proclamation of the Patriarchate of Moscow in 1589. The creation of the patriarchate climaxed the evolution of a separate and totally independent Russian Orthodox Church.

In 1598, Feodor died without an heir, ending the Rurik Dynasty. Boris Godunov then convened a Zemsky Sobor, a national assembly of boyars, church officials, and commoners, which proclaimed him tsar, although various boyar factions refused to recognize the decision. Widespread crop failures caused the Russian famine of 1601–1603, and during the ensuing discontent, a man emerged who claimed to be Tsarevich Demetrius, Ivan IV's son who had died in 1591. This pretender to the throne, who came to be known as False Dmitriy I, gained support in Poland and marched to Moscow, gathering followers among the boyars and other elements as he went. Historians speculate that Godunov would have weathered this crisis had he not died in 1605. As a result, False Dmitriy I entered Moscow and was crowned tsar that year, following the murder of Tsar Feodor II, Godunov's son.

Subsequently, Russia entered a period of continuous chaos, known as The Time of Troubles (Смутное Время). Despite the Tsar's persecution of the boyars, the townspeople's dissatisfaction, and the gradual enserfment of the peasantry, efforts at restricting the power of the Tsar were only halfhearted. Finding no institutional alternative to the autocracy, discontented Russians rallied behind various pretenders to the throne. During that period, the goal of political activity was to gain influence over the sitting autocrat or to place one's own candidate on the throne. The boyars fought among themselves, the lower classes revolted blindly, and foreign armies occupied the Kremlin in Moscow, prompting many to accept Tsarist autocracy as a necessary means to restoring order and unity in Russia.

The Poles surrender the Moscow Kremlin to Prince Pozharsky in 1612. Painting by Ernst Lissner.

The Time of Troubles included a civil war in which a struggle over the throne was complicated by the machinations of rival boyar factions, the intervention of regional powers Poland and Sweden, and intense popular discontent, led by Ivan Bolotnikov. False Dmitriy I and his Polish garrison were overthrown, and a boyar, Vasily Shuysky, was proclaimed tsar in 1606. In his attempt to retain the throne, Shuysky allied himself with the Swedes, unleashing the Ingrian War with Sweden. False Dmitry II, allied with the Poles, appeared under the walls of Moscow and set up a mock court in the village of Tushino.

In 1609, Poland intervened into Russian affairs officially, captured Shuisky, and occupied the Kremlin. A group of Russian boyars signed in 1610 a treaty of peace, recognising Ladislaus IV of Poland, son of Polish king Sigismund III Vasa, as tsar. In 1611, False Dmitry III appeared in the Swedish-occupied territories, but was soon apprehended and executed. The Polish presence led to a patriotic revival among the Russians, and a volunteer army, financed by the Stroganov merchants and blessed by the Orthodox Church, was formed in Nizhny Novgorod and, led by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky and Kuzma Minin, drove the Poles out of the Kremlin. In 1613, a zemsky Sobor proclaimed the boyar Mikhail Romanov as tsar, beginning the 300-year reign of the Romanov family.

Romanovs

Andrei Ryabushkin: Tsar Michael at the Session of the Zemsky Sobor(1893)

The immediate task of the new dynasty was to restore order. However, Russia's major enemies, Poland and Sweden, were engaged in a conflict with each other, which provided Russia with the opportunity to make peace with Sweden in 1617. The Polish–Muscovite War was ended with the Truce of Deulino in 1618, restoring temporarily Polish and Lithuanian rule over some territories, including Smolensk, lost by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1509.

The early Romanovs were weak rulers. Under Mikhail, state affairs were in the hands of the tsar's father, Filaret, who in 1619 became Patriarch of Moscow. Later, Mikhail's son Aleksey (r. 1645–1676) relied on a boyar, Boris Morozov, to run his government. Morozov abused his position by exploiting the populace, and in 1648 Aleksey dismissed him in the wake of the Salt Riot in Moscow.

Reforms of Michael I

After ascending to the throne in 1613, Tsar Michael I of Russia implemented a series of reforms aimed at stabilizing and rebuilding the country following the Time of Troubles. These reforms focused on restoring order, strengthening central authority, and revitalizing the economy.

Administrative Reforms

Michael I reorganized the central government by establishing new administrative bodies:

1. Posolsky Prikaz (Foreign Office): This department was responsible for managing Russia's diplomatic relations with other countries.
2. Razryadny Prikaz (Military Affairs Office): This office oversaw military administration and recruitment.

These reforms helped centralize power and improve the efficiency of state governance.

Economic Reforms

To address the economic devastation caused by the Time of Troubles, Michael I implemented several measures:

1. Tax Reform: A new tax system called "big sokha" was introduced, which was based on the quality of soil and the type of landowner.
2. Trade Initiatives: The government encouraged foreign trade, particularly with England, to stimulate economic growth.

Military Reforms

Michael I took steps to strengthen Russia's military capabilities:

1. Border Fortification: The southern borders were extended and fortified to protect against Crimean Tatar incursions.
2. Cossack Relations: The government worked to improve relations with the Don Cossacks, who served as a buffer against Ottoman expansion.

Legal Reforms

To restore order and justice, Michael I implemented legal reforms:

1. Law Code Revision: The existing law code was updated to address new social and economic realities.
2. Judicial Reforms: Local courts were reorganized to improve the administration of justice.

Religious Policy

Michael I maintained close ties with the Russian Orthodox Church:

1. Church Support: The government provided financial and political support to the Church, recognizing its role in maintaining social stability.
2. Patriarchate: Michael's father, Filaret, became Patriarch of Moscow in 1619, further strengthening the alliance between Church and State.

Foreign Policy

Michael I pursued a cautious foreign policy focused on peace and recovery:

1. Peace Treaties: Truces were negotiated with Sweden (1617) and Poland (1618) to end hostilities and secure Russia's borders.
2. Diplomatic Restraint: The government avoided involvement in the Thirty Years' War, focusing instead on internal reconstruction.

These reforms laid the foundation for Russia's recovery and the consolidation of Romanov rule, setting the stage for further developments under Michael's successors.After an unsuccessful attempt to regain Smolensk from Poland in 1632, Russia made peace with Poland in 1634. Polish king Władysław IV Vasa, whose father and predecessor was Sigismund III Vasa, had been elected by Russian boyars as tsar of Russia during the Time of Troubles, renounced all claims to the title as a condition of the peace treaty.

Legal code of 1649

The autocracy survived the Time of Troubles and the rule of weak or corrupt tsars because of the strength of the government's central bureaucracy. Government functionaries continued to serve, regardless of the ruler's legitimacy or the boyar faction controlling the throne. In the 17th century, the bureaucracy expanded dramatically. The number of government departments (prikazy; sing., prikaz ) increased from twenty-two in 1613 to eighty by mid-century. Although the departments often had overlapping and conflicting jurisdictions, the central government, through provincial governors, was able to control and regulate all social groups, as well as trade, manufacturing, and even the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Portrait of Russian diplomat and voivode Pyotr Potemkin by Godfrey Kneller

The Sobornoye Ulozheniye, a comprehensive legal code introduced in 1649, illustrates the extent of state control over Russian society. By that time, the boyars had largely merged with the new elite, who were obligatory servitors of the state, to form a new nobility, the dvoryanstvo. The state required service from both the old and the new nobility, primarily in the military because of permanent warfare on southern and western borders and attacks of nomads. In return, the nobility received land and peasants. In the preceding century, the state had gradually curtailed peasants' rights to move from one landlord to another; the 1649 code officially attached peasants to their home.

The state fully sanctioned serfdom, and runaway peasants became state fugitives. Landlords had complete power over their peasants. Peasants living on state-owned land, however, were not considered serfs. They were organized into communes, which were responsible for taxes and other obligations. Like serfs, however, state peasants were attached to the land they farmed. Middle-class urban tradesmen and craftsmen were assessed taxes, and, like the serfs, they were forbidden to change residence. All segments of the population were subject to military levy and to special taxes. By chaining much of Russian society to specific domiciles, the legal code of 1649 curtailed movement and subordinated the people to the interests of the state.

Under this code, increased state taxes and regulations altered the social discontent that had been simmering since the Time of Troubles. In the 1650s and 1660s, the number of peasant escapes increased dramatically. A favourite refuge was the Don River region, domain of the Don Cossacks. A major uprising occurred in the Volga region in 1670 and 1671. Stenka Razin, a Cossack who was from the Don River region, led a revolt that drew together wealthy Cossacks who were well established in the region and escaped serfs seeking free land. The unexpected uprising swept up the Volga River valley and even threatened Moscow. Tsarist troops finally defeated the rebels after they had occupied major cities along the Volga in an operation whose panache captured the imaginations of later generations of Russians. Razin was publicly tortured and executed.

Acquisition of the Wild Fields

A warrior of the Russian noble cavalry (поместная конница) during the Russo-Polish War of 1654–1667. The drawing is based on the pieces preserved in the Kremlin Armoury.

The Tsardom of Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century. In the southwest, it claimed the Wild Fields (modern day Eastern Ukraine and South-Western Russia), which had been under Polish–Lithuanian rule and sought assistance from Russia to leave the rule of the Commonwealth. The Zaporozhian Cossacks, warriors organized in military formations, lived in the frontier areas bordering Poland, the Crimean Tatar lands. Although part of them was serving in the Polish army as Registered Cossacks, the Zaporozhian Cossacks remained fiercely independent and staged several rebellions against the Poles. In 1648, the peasants of what is now Eastern Ukraine joined the Cossacks in rebellion during the Khmelnytsky Uprising, because of the social and religious oppression they suffered under Polish rule. Initially, Cossacks were allied with Crimean Tatars, which had helped them to throw off Polish rule. Once the Poles convinced the Tartars to switch sides, the Zaporozhian Cossacks needed military help to maintain their position.

In 1648, the Hetman (leader) of the Zaporozhian Host, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to ally with the Russian tsar, Aleksey I. Aleksey's acceptance of this offer, which was ratified in the Treaty of Pereyaslav in 1654, led to a protracted war between Poland and Russia. The Truce of Andrusovo, which did not involve the Hetmanate (Cossack Hetmanate) as a participating party of the agreement ended the war in 1667. Cossacks considered it as a Moscow betrayal. As a result, it split Cossack territory along the Dnieper River, reuniting the western sector (or Right-bank Ukraine) with Poland and leaving the eastern sector (Left-bank Ukraine) self-governing under the sovereignty of the tsar. However, the self-government did not last long and Cossack territory was eventually incorporated into the Russian Empire (after the Battle of Poltava) during the 18th century.

Raskol (Schism)

Main article: Schism of the Russian Church

Patriarch Nikon and Tsar Alexis in the Cathedral of the Archangel. Painting by Alexander Litovchenko.

Russia's southwestern expansion, particularly its incorporation of the Wild Fields (modern day Eastern Ukraine), had unintended consequences. Most Little Russians were Orthodox, but their close contact with the Roman Catholic Polish also brought them Western intellectual currents. Through the Cossack Academy in Kiev, Russia gained links to Polish and Central European influences and to the wider Orthodox world. Although the Zaporozhian Cossack link induced creativity in many areas, it also weakened traditional Russian religious practices and culture. The Russian Orthodox Church discovered that its isolation from Constantinople had caused variations to appear between their liturgical books and practices.

The Russian Orthodox patriarch, Nikon, was determined to bring the Russian texts back into conformity with the Greek texts and practices of the time. But Nikon encountered opposition among the many Russians who viewed the corrections as improper foreign intrusions. When the Orthodox Church forced Nikon's reforms, a schism resulted in 1667. Those who did not accept the reforms came to be called the Old Believers; they were officially pronounced heretics and were persecuted by the church and the state. The chief opposition figure, the protopope Avvakum, was burned at the stake. The split afterwards became permanent, and many merchants and peasants joined the Old Believers.

The tsar's court also felt the impact of Little Russia and the West. Kiev was a major transmitter of new ideas and insight through the famed scholarly academy that Metropolitan Mohyla founded there in 1631. Other more direct channels to the West opened as international trade increased and more foreigners came to Russia. The Tsar's court was interested in the West's more advanced technology, particularly when military applications were involved. By the end of the 17th century, Little Russian, Polish, and West European penetration had weakened the Russian cultural synthesis – at least among the elite – and had prepared the way for an even more radical transformation.

Conquest of Siberia

Main article: Russian conquest of Siberia

Vasily Surikov: Yermak's Conquest of Siberia (1895)

Russia's eastward expansion encountered little resistance. In 1581, the Stroganov merchant family, interested in the fur trade, hired a Cossack leader, Yermak Timofeyevich, to lead an expedition into western Siberia. Yermak defeated the Khanate of Sibir and claimed the territories west of the Ob and Irtysh Rivers for Russia.

From such bases as Mangazeya, merchants, traders, and explorers pushed eastward from the Ob River to the Yenisey River, then on to the Lena River and the coast of the Pacific Ocean. In 1648, Cossack Semyon Dezhnyov opened the passage between America and Asia. By the middle of the 17th century, Russians had reached the Amur River and the outskirts of the Chinese Empire.

After a period of Sino-Russian border conflicts with the Qing dynasty, Russia made peace with China in 1689. By the Treaty of Nerchinsk, Russia ceded its claims to the Amur Valley, but it gained access to the region east of Lake Baikal and the trade route to Beijing. Peace with China strengthened the initial breakthrough to the Pacific that had been made in the middle of the century.

Peter the Great and the Russian Empire

Main articles: Peter the Great and Russian Empire

Nativity Church at Putinki, an example of the 17th-century Russian uzorochye style

Peter the Great (1696–1725), who became ruler in his own right in 1696, brought the Tsardom of Russia, which had little prior contact with Western Europe, into the mainstream of European culture and politics. After suppressing numerous rebellions with considerable bloodshed, Peter embarked on an incognito tour of Western Europe. He became impressed with what he saw and was awakened. Peter began requiring the nobility to wear Western European clothing and shave off their beards, an action that the boyars protested bitterly. Arranged marriages among the nobility were banned, and the Orthodox Church was brought under state control. Military academies were established to create a modern Western European-style army and officer corps.

These changes did not win Peter many friends, and in fact caused great political division in the country. These, along with his notorious cruelties (such as the torture murder of his own son for plotting a rebellion -though this was proven false) and the immense human suffering that accompanied many of his projects, such as the construction of Saint Petersburg, led many pious Russians to believe that he was the Antichrist. The Great Northern War against Sweden consumed much of Peter's attention for years; however, the Swedes were eventually defeated, and peace was agreed to in 1721. Russia annexed the Baltic coast from Sweden and parts of Finland, which would become the site of the new Russian capital, Saint Petersburg. The Russian victory in the Great Northern War marked a watershed in European politics, as it not only brought about the eclipse of Sweden as a great power, but also Russia's decisive emergence as a permanent European great power. The Russian colonization of Siberia also continued, and war with Persia brought about the acquisition of territory in the Caucasus, although Russia surrendered those gains after Peter's death in 1725.

Organization

The organization and bureaucracy of the Tsardom of Russia were characterized by a centralized autocratic system that evolved significantly from the mid-16th century to the early 18th century. The Tsar held absolute power, and the governance structure was heavily influenced by Byzantine traditions, emphasizing the centralization of authority and the subordination of the nobility to the Tsar. The Boyar Duma served as an advisory council composed of the highest-ranking nobles, but its influence waned over time as the Tsar's autocratic power increased.

During the reign of Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible), the bureaucratic apparatus began to take shape with the establishment of various government departments known as prikazy (singular: prikaz). Initially, there were about 22 prikazy in 1613, but this number expanded to around 80 by the mid-17th century. These departments were responsible for a range of functions, including military affairs, finance, trade, and even religious matters. Although the prikazy often had overlapping jurisdictions and conflicting responsibilities, they played a crucial role in the central government's ability to control and regulate various aspects of society, including the economy and the Orthodox Church.

The legal framework of the Tsardom was significantly influenced by the Sobornoye Ulozheniye, a comprehensive legal code introduced in 1649. This code illustrated the extent of state control over Russian society, as it formally sanctioned serfdom and curtailed the rights of peasants. The code required service from both the old nobility and the newly emerging elite, known as the dvoryanstvo, which consisted of those who served the state in military or administrative capacities. In return for their service, the nobility received land and peasants, further intertwining the interests of the state and the aristocracy.

The bureaucracy of the Tsardom was essential for maintaining the autocratic regime, especially during the Time of Troubles (1598–1613), a period marked by political instability and civil strife. The central bureaucracy survived despite the challenges posed by weak or corrupt rulers, as government functionaries continued to serve regardless of the legitimacy of the Tsar. This resilience allowed the state to recover and consolidate power, ultimately leading to the establishment of the Romanov dynasty in 1613.

By the time of Peter the Great, who reigned from 1682 to 1725, the bureaucratic system had become more formalized and structured. Peter implemented significant reforms aimed at modernizing the government and military, including the establishment of colleges (ministries) to oversee specific areas of governance. These reforms laid the foundation for a more efficient administrative system that would evolve into the Russian Empire. However, despite these advancements, the Tsardom's bureaucracy remained heavily centralized and autocratic, with little room for local autonomy or independent institutions.

Overall, the organization and bureaucracy of the Tsardom of Russia played a critical role in shaping the political landscape of the country. The centralization of power in the hands of the Tsar, supported by a growing bureaucratic apparatus, allowed for the effective administration of an expanding territory. However, this system also contributed to social tensions and unrest, as the interests of the state often came at the expense of the rights and freedoms of the peasantry and other social classes.

Society

The Tsardom of Russia, which existed from 1547 to 1721, was characterized by a highly stratified social structure. At the top of the social hierarchy was the Tsar, who held absolute power and was considered God's representative on earth. Below the Tsar were the boyars, the highest ranking nobles who owned large estates and held significant political influence.The majority of the population, around 80%, belonged to the peasant class. Most peasants were serfs, bound to the land they worked and owned by either the nobility or the state. Serfdom became increasingly oppressive during this period, with landowners gaining more control over the lives of their serfs. Urban dwellers, including merchants and artisans, formed a small but growing segment of society, particularly in cities like Moscow and Novgorod.The Russian Orthodox Church played a crucial role in society, wielding considerable influence and owning vast tracts of land. The clergy formed a distinct social class, with the higher ranks often coming from noble families. The Church was closely aligned with the state and helped maintain social order.

A unique feature of Russian society was the system of mestnichestvo, which determined a noble's position in the military and civil administration based on his family's historical rank and service. This system was abolished in 1682 by Tsar Feodor III at the request of the highest boyars, paving the way for Peter the Great's later reforms that would create a service nobility based on merit rather than birth

Military

The military of the Tsardom of Russia underwent significant transformations from the 16th to the early 18th centuries, evolving from a feudal-based force into a more organized and modern standing army. In the early period of the Tsardom, the military was primarily composed of boyar cavalry, which consisted of noble-led mounted units that formed the backbone of the army. Additionally, the pomestye cavalry, made up of landed gentry who served in return for land grants, played a crucial role in military campaigns. The introduction of the streltsy, a permanent corps of firearm-equipped infantry established by Ivan IV in the 1550s, marked a significant shift in military structure. The streltsy were among the first to adopt gunpowder weapons, representing a move towards more modern military tactics. Furthermore, the Cossacks, semi-independent warrior communities, served as light cavalry and border guards, contributing to the defense and expansion of Russian territories.During the reign of Ivan IV, also known as Ivan the Terrible, several military reforms were implemented that laid the groundwork for a more centralized military structure. Ivan established the streltsy as Russia's first standing army, which allowed for a more consistent and reliable military force. He also introduced a new military code, the Sudebnik of 1550, which regulated military service and established clearer expectations for soldiers. Additionally, Ivan created the Chosen Thousand, an elite cavalry unit that was directly subordinate to the Tsar, further consolidating military power under the central authority.The 17th century saw further developments in the Russian military, particularly under Tsar Alexis I. During this period, there was an increasing influence of Western European military practices, which were adopted to modernize the Russian army. The formation of the Regiments of the New Order marked a significant shift, as these regiments included dragoons, reiter, and infantry trained in Western tactics. The advancements in artillery production and usage also played a crucial role in enhancing the military capabilities of the Tsardom, allowing for more effective siege warfare and battlefield tactics.The organizational structure of the Russian army evolved into a more systematic arrangement. The primary tactical unit became the polk, or regiment, which was organized into various razryads, or military districts, for administrative purposes. The prikazy, or government departments, were established to oversee military affairs, with specific departments such as the Streletsky Prikaz and Pushkarsky Prikaz managing different aspects of military organization and logistics. This bureaucratic structure allowed for better coordination and management of military resources.While the Tsardom of Russia primarily focused on land-based military operations, some developments in naval capabilities occurred during this period. The creation of the first Russian naval base at Arkhangelsk in the late 16th century marked the beginning of Russia's efforts to establish a maritime presence. Small fleets were constructed for river operations, particularly on the Volga River, to protect trade routes and facilitate military movements.Despite these advancements, the military of the Tsardom faced several challenges and limitations. Logistical issues, such as inadequate supply lines and poor infrastructure, often hampered military campaigns. Additionally, the reliance on serf labor for military service created tensions within the peasant class, as many were forced to serve in the military without adequate compensation or support. These challenges highlighted the need for further reforms and modernization in the Russian military as the Tsardom approached the 18th century.

The military of the Tsardom of Russia laid the groundwork for the future expansion and consolidation of Russian power, particularly under Peter the Great, who would implement sweeping reforms that transformed the Russian military into a formidable force in Europe. The evolution of the military during the Tsardom period set the stage for Russia's emergence as a major player on the world stage in the subsequent centuries.

Economy

Agriculture formed the backbone of the Russian economy throughout the Tsardom period. The majority of the population, around 80%, were peasants engaged in farming. Initially, most peasants were serfs bound to the land they worked, owned by either the nobility or the state. This system of serfdom became increasingly oppressive over time, with landowners gaining more control over the lives of their serfs.Trade played a crucial role in the Tsardom's economic growth. The port of Arkhangelsk in the north became a significant hub for exporting forest products and semi-manufactured goods like naval stores and potash to England and the Netherlands. Russian merchants also took a leading role in the early exploitation of Siberia, expanding trade eastward.The government became deeply involved in the development of trade and commerce. It exercised monopolistic control over certain areas and commodities and made efforts to build up strategic industries such as metallurgy. This state involvement contributed to the rapid economic growth during the 17th century.By the end of the 17th century, Russia had become a leading producer of pig iron and potash. This industrial growth laid the economic foundation for the military successes of Peter the Great in the early 18th century. The expansion of territory eastward beyond the Urals and southward into the black-soil region also contributed to increased state revenues.

Government & Legislature

The Tsardom of Russia, existing from 1547 to 1721, was characterized by a highly centralized autocratic system of government, with the Tsar at its apex. The Tsar held absolute power, considered to be divinely ordained, and was the supreme authority in all matters of state. This autocratic rule was supported by a complex bureaucratic structure that evolved over time to manage the expanding territory and population of the Russian state.At the highest level of government, immediately below the Tsar, was the Boyar Duma. This council of noble boyars and high-ranking officials served as an advisory body to the Tsar on matters of state policy, legislation, and administration. The composition and influence of the Boyar Duma varied throughout the Tsardom period, with its power generally declining as the autocratic authority of the Tsar increased. By the late 17th century, the Boyar Duma had largely been replaced by a system of chancelleries or ministries known as prikazy.A unique feature of the Tsardom's governmental structure was the Zemsky Sobor, or Assembly of the Land. First convened by Ivan IV in 1549, the Zemsky Sobor was a national assembly that included representatives from various social classes, including the nobility, clergy, merchants, and even some free peasants. While not a permanent institution and lacking consistent legislative powers, the Zemsky Sobor played a crucial role during times of crisis or major decision-making, such as the election of Mikhail Romanov as Tsar in 1613. However, as the autocratic power of the Tsars grew, the importance and frequency of Zemsky Sobor meetings diminished.The administrative structure of the Tsardom was based on a system of prikazy, which were essentially government departments or chancelleries responsible for specific areas of governance. These prikazy dealt with various aspects of state administration, including foreign affairs, military matters, finance, and justice. The number and functions of prikazy expanded over time as the complexity of governance increased. This system, while often inefficient due to overlapping jurisdictions and corruption, formed the basis of Russian central administration until Peter the Great's reforms in the early 18th century.

At the local level, governance was carried out through a system of provincial governors or voevody, appointed by the Tsar. These officials were responsible for maintaining order, collecting taxes, and implementing central government policies in their assigned territories. However, the effectiveness of local administration varied greatly, with corruption and abuse of power being common problems. Alongside this official structure, the Russian Orthodox Church played a significant role in governance, particularly in rural areas, where it often served as an extension of state authority and a means of social control.

State flags

There was no single flag during the Tsardom. Instead, there were multiple flags:

• Standards used by the Tsar:
  • Standard of the Tsar of Russia (1693–1700): white-blue-red tricolor with golden double-headed eagle in the center. Replaced by the Imperial standard in 1700 (see below).
  • Imperial Standard of the Tsar of Russia: black double-headed eagle carrying St. Vladimir Red Coat of Arms, on a golden rectangular field, adopted in 1700 instead of the older white-blue-red Standard of the Tsar of Moscow.
• Civil flag: The early Romanov Tsars instituted the two-headed eagle Imperial Flag of the Tsar, which origin dates back to 1472, as a Civil Flag, it remained the Civil Flag of Russia until replaced during the Empire in 1858.
• Civil ensign of Russia: the white-blue-red tricolor, that was adopted on 20 January 1705 by decree of Peter I.
• Naval ensign of the Imperial Russian Navy: white field with a blue saltire, adopted in 1712. Before that, the naval ensign of Russia was white-blue-red tricolor.
• Naval jack of the Imperial Russian Navy: red field with a blue saltire, adopted in 1700.

• 
  Naval ensign of the Imperial Russian Navy (1697–1699) and civil ensign of Russia (from 1705)
• 
  Naval ensign of the Imperial Russian Navy (1699–1700), a transitional variant between the 1697–1699 ensign and the Andreevsky Flag of 1712
• 
  Naval jack of the Imperial Russian Navy (from 1700)
• 
  Naval ensign of the Imperial Russian Navy (from 1712)
• 
  Standard of the Tsar of Russia (1693–1700)

See also

• List of Russian monarchs
• Coronation of the Russian monarch
• Tsarist autocracy
• Demographic history of Russia

Primary sources

• Grigory Kotoshikhin's Russia during the reign of Alexey Mikhailovich (1665) is the indispensable source for those studying administration of the Russian tsardom
• Domostroy is a 16th-century set of rules regulating everyday behaviour in the Russian boyar families.
• "Russia under the Old Regime" (2nd ed. 1997). This classic text examines Russian political and social structures prior to the 1917 revolution
• Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. "A History of Russia" (9th ed. 2018). This comprehensive textbook covers Russian history from ancient times through the modern era
• Martin, Janet. "Medieval Russia, 980–1584" (2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2007).
• Crummey, Robert O. "The Formation of Muscovy, 1304–1613" (London: Longman, 1987).
• Bushkovitch, Paul. "A Concise History of Russia" (2011). This book includes chapters on the political structure of Muscovy and early Imperial Russia.

Secondary sources

Main article: Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)

• This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies. Federal Research Division. – Russia
• Jarmo Kotilaine, Marshall Poe (ed.), Modernizing Muscovy: Reform and Social Change in Seventeenth Century Russia, Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0-415-30751-1
• "The Romanovs: Autocrats of All the Russias" (1983) This work offers a sweeping narrative history of the Romanov dynasty
• Kivelson, Valerie A. and Ronald Grigor Suny. "Russia's Empires" (2016). This work examines the evolution of Russian governance from Muscovy through the Imperial period.
• Bushkovitch, Paul. "A Concise History of Russia" (2011). This book includes chapters on the political structure of Muscovy and early Imperial Russia.
• Kollmann, Nancy Shields. "The Russian Empire 1450-1801" (2017).

External links

• Media related to Tsardom of Russia at Wikimedia Commons